Pedestrians and bicyclists

Pedestrian deaths have increased 78% since reaching their low point in 2009 and account for 18% of crash fatalities. Three percent of people killed in motor vehicle crashes are bicyclists.

Traffic engineering improvements can reduce pedestrian and bicyclist crashes. Solutions include building median islands, creating bike lanes, installing flashing beacons at crosswalks, illuminating crosswalks at night and adjusting traffic signals to give pedestrians and bicyclists a head start. Lowering vehicle speeds can also reduce injury severity for pedestrians and bicyclists involved in crashes.

Crash avoidance features and other vehicle improvements may also make pedestrians and bicyclists safer. Forward collision avoidance systems are increasingly designed to detect pedestrians in a vehicle's path, and rear cameras may prevent backover crashes. Modifying the front structures of vehicles may reduce the severity of pedestrian injuries. Regulators in Europe and elsewhere have been encouraging pedestrian protection in vehicle design through their vehicle testing programs.

Helmets provide critical protection for bicyclists. Among a majority of bicyclists killed in crashes, head injuries are the most serious injuries. Helmet use has been estimated to reduce the odds of head injury by 50%.

There were 7,314 pedestrians and 1,155 bicyclists killed in 2023 and approximately 68,000 pedestrians and 49,000 bicyclists injured in motor vehicle crashes on public roadways in the United States. Pedestrians comprised about 18% of crash deaths, and bicyclists made up an additional 3%.

In a majority of bicyclist deaths, the most serious injuries are to the head, highlighting the importance of wearing a bicycle helmet (Sacks et al., 1991). Helmet use has been estimated to reduce the odds of head injury by 50%, and the odds of head, face or neck injury by 33% (Elvik, 2013).

Twenty-one states and the District of Columbia have helmet use laws applying to young bicyclists. None of these laws apply to all riders. Local ordinances in a few states require some or all bicyclists to wear helmets.

The odds that a bicyclist will wear a helmet are 4 times higher after a helmet law is enacted than before a law is passed (Karkhaneh et al., 2006).  Helmets are important for riders of all ages, not just young bicyclists. Ninety percent of fatally injured bicyclists in 2023 were age 20 or older. Only about 14% of bicyclists who were fatally injured in 2023 were known to be wearing helmets.

Helmet use rates are lower among bike share users than among riders of personally owned bicycles, even in cities requiring helmet use for all ages (Fischer et al., 2012; Zanotto & Winters, 2017).

Not all helmets provide the same reduction in concussion risk (Bland et al., 2018). A bicycle helmet ratings program at Virginia Tech, based on research performed in collaboration with IIHS, ranks helmets on their performance in impact tests.

Higher vehicle speeds increase the risk of crash involvement and the risk of injury or death when a crash occurs. Because pedestrians and bicyclists don't have a vehicle’s structure to protect them, small increases in vehicle speeds have an especially large impact on the risk of a serious injury or fatality. A recent IIHS study using U.S. pedestrian crashes found the average risk of serious injury or worse to a pedestrian increased from 18% at an impact speed of 20 mph to 32% at 25 mph, 67% at 35 mph, 90% at 45 mph, and 97% at 55 mph (Monfort & Mueller, 2025).

Effective engineering measures to reduce speeds in urban areas include traffic calming devices such as speed humps and multiway stop signs (Retting et al., 2003;  Rothman et al., 2015). Traffic calming can also be installed at intersections to reduce the speeds of left-turning vehicles (Hu & Cicchino, 2020). Lowering speed limits on city streets reduces the proportion of vehicles traveling at high speeds and has potential to prevent pedestrian and bicyclist injuries (Hu & Cicchino, 2020).

One key strategy for protecting pedestrians and bicyclists is to separate them from motor vehicles — for example, with sidewalks or bike lanes. Research has shown that sidewalks in residential areas are highly effective (Retting et al., 2003), while creating bike lanes is associated with reductions in crashes (Avelar et al., 2021).

Separated bike lanes, also called protected bike lanes, are physically separated from traffic with barriers such as posts or parked cars. A 2023 study in the U.S. found separated bike lanes are more safety-effective than traditional painted bike lanes (FHWA, 2023).

An IIHS study (Cicchino et al., 2020) found that the risk of crashing or falling can vary in separated bike lanes with different designs. The study suggested that characteristics that minimize conflict points, such as fewer intersections with roads and driveways, more continuous separation, and less complexity for crossing vehicles, can reduce the risk.

Pedestrians and bicyclists can be separated from traffic as they cross the street by overpasses, underpasses, and median islands in busy two-way streets (Retting et al., 2003). Curb extensions reduce the time pedestrians are in the road and make them more visible to drivers (Zegeer et al., 2013). Narrowing or eliminating travel lanes on multilane roads with a road diet can allow more space for median islands and curb extensions, as well as for sidewalks and bike lanes (Knapp et al., 2014).

Effective countermeasures involving changes to traffic signals include exclusive traffic signal phasing that stops all vehicle traffic for part or all of the pedestrian or cyclist crossing signal duration, and left turn phasing, in which left-turning vehicles have a green arrow and crossing pedestrians or cyclists have a red light (Retting et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2013; Ledezma-Navarro et al., 2018).

Extending the time available for pedestrians to cross at intersections with signals can be beneficial, especially for older pedestrians (Chen et al., 2013; Stollof et al., 2007).

Providing pedestrians a three- or four-second head start through a leading pedestrian interval (a signal that allows pedestrians to begin crossing before the release of turning vehicles) has been found to reduce pedestrian crashes (Huitema et al., 2014; Srinivasan et al., 2022).

Special warning signs and pavement markings to encourage or prompt pedestrians to look for turning vehicles as they cross the street may help at signalized intersections (Retting et al., 1996).

Bike boxes, also called advanced stop lines or advanced stop boxes, are designated areas for bicyclists to stop in front of queued traffic at red lights. They have been shown to reduce conflicts with vehicles at signalized intersections (Dill et al., 2012).

Pedestrian crossing beacons

Pedestrian hybrid beacons (PHBs) alert drivers to stop for pedestrians at crosswalks. The signals are activated by pedestrians and remain dark otherwise. They cycle through two yellow warning phases before signaling drivers to stop with two steady red lights. In a 2021 study, PHBs were associated with a 45% reduction in crashes in which pedestrians were killed or injured (Fitzpatrick et al., 2021).

Stages of a pedestrian hybrid beacon

Rapid-flashing beacons, which are yellow LEDs mounted to pedestrian or bicyclist crossing signs that flash in an irregular pattern when nonmotorists are present, also draw the attention of drivers to pedestrians and cyclists and have been shown to reduce pedestrian crashes by 47% (Zegeer et al., 2017). 

An IIHS study showed that both PHBs and, to a lesser extent, rapid-flashing beacons increase driver yielding when they are used (Avelar and Cicchino, 2025). However, the researchers found that when PHBs were activated, the time pedestrians spent waiting to cross more than doubled. That delay helps explain why many pedestrians simply cross without activating a PHB.

Based on that finding, PHBs should be reserved for locations with the most challenging crossing conditions — for example, wide roads with high traffic volumes and speeds. Rapid-flashing beacons are a good alternative where crossing conditions are less challenging.

Crosswalk illuminators have also been shown to increase the odds of drivers yielding at crosswalks at night, particularly when paired with rapid-flashing beacons (Hu et al., 2024).

Vehicle type and design can affect both the likelihood of a pedestrian crash and the severity of injuries to pedestrians. In a study of pedestrian crashes between 2009 and 2016, IIHS researchers found that fatal single-vehicle crashes involving SUVs increased 81%, more than any other vehicle type (Hu & Cicchino, 2018).

A 2022 IIHS study found that SUVs, pickups and vans are more likely to strike pedestrians when making turns than cars, relative to when they are traveling straight at intersections (Hu & Cicchino, 2022). This finding suggests that visibility while turning may be an issue for these bigger vehicles.

Pedestrians and bicyclists are more likely to die or be seriously injured when struck by SUVs or pickups than when struck by cars (Monfort & Mueller, 2020; Monfort & Mueller, 2023; Roudsari et al., 2004).

A big reason for this is the height and shape of these vehicles’ front ends. An IIHS study found that vehicles with hoods more than 40 inches off the ground were about 45% more likely to cause pedestrian fatalities than vehicles with hood heights lower than 30 inches and sloped front ends (Hu et al, 2024). Medium-height vehicles with blunt front ends were 26% more likely to kill a pedestrian.

Comparative risk of pedestrian fatality by hood leading edge height and shape

Taller front ends magnify the effect of crash speed on injury risk. At 10 mph, both a midsize car and midsize pickup are associated with a 5% risk of serious injury, but at 30 mph the car is associated with a 37% risk and the pickup is more than double, at 76% (Monfort & Mueller, 2025).

Taller vehicles with vertical front-ends produce more head, torso and pelvis injuries (Monfort et al., 2024). Taller vehicles are twice as likely to knock down the pedestrian and run them over (Monfort et al., 2024), whereas passenger cars are more likely to strike an adult pedestrian in the legs and throw them onto the hood (Crandall et al., 2002).

There has been a great deal of research into how vehicle front ends, including those of SUVs and pickups, can be modified to reduce the threat they pose to pedestrians (Ashton & Mackay, 1983; United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, 2009; Daniel, 1982).

As a result of this research, regulators in Europe, Japan, Korea and Australia have implemented vehicle testing programs specifically aimed at protecting pedestrians. These testing programs focus on pedestrian interaction with the hood and bumper and in some cases the hood edge and the windshield. The European New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) has plans to introduce testing of vehicle front ends that will also address bicyclist injuries. 

The National Highway Transportation Safety Administration has proposed adding pedestrian crashworthiness testing to future U.S. NCAP evaluations (Office of the Federal Register, 2023) and initiating regulatory testing assessing head protection from impacts with vehicle hoods (Office of the Federal Register, 2024).

To perform well in these tests, automakers have been putting more room between the hood and engine, designing pop-up hoods that automatically lift up a few inches upon impact, adding pedestrian hood airbags that cover the parts of the windshield and A-pillar where pedestrians frequently hit their heads, and designing bumpers with more give (Strandroth et al., 2014).

Pedestrian detection systems continuously monitor traffic in front of vehicles and warn drivers of potential collisions with pedestrians. Many systems automatically apply the brakes when a crash is imminent. Systems are being developed to prevent or mitigate crashes with cyclists as well.

An IIHS study found that vehicles equipped with automatic braking that detects pedestrians had a 27% lower rate of pedestrian crashes than vehicles without such technology (Cicchino, 2022). Injury crash rates were 30% lower. However, when the researchers looked only at pedestrian crashes that occurred at night on roads without streetlights, there was no difference in crash risk for vehicles with and without the feature. Systems that function better in the dark would likely have a much larger benefit.

IIHS began rating pedestrian crash prevention systems in 2019 and launched a separate evaluation of the systems’ nighttime performance in 2022.

The Highway Loss Data Institute studied insurance claim rates for Subaru models with and without the optional EyeSight system, a crash avoidance system with pedestrian-detection capability (Wakeman et al., 2019). Pedestrian injury claim rates were 35% lower among vehicles with EyeSight than among vehicles without. Claims were assumed to be from pedestrian crashes if they involved a bodily injury liability claim without a claim for vehicle damage.

Automatic emergency braking systems can also be designed to detect cyclists. These technologies have the potential to address 28,600 police-reported and 600 fatal bicycle crashes each year (Kidd et al., 2025).

Rearview cameras have been shown to prevent backing crashes with pedestrians (Keall et al., 2017), and could potentially prevent such crashes with bicyclists.

A vehicle's sound helps pedestrians, especially those who are visually impaired, detect a vehicle's presence and movements. Electric vehicles emit less sound than vehicles with combustion engines. The same is true of hybrid vehicles when powered solely by electricity.

A government study examined the crashes of hybrid vehicles and similar nonhybrid vehicles and found that the likelihood of crashing with a pedestrian was 39% higher for hybrids than for nonhybrids in areas where speed limits were 35 mph or slower and 66% higher when performing certain maneuvers such as turning, stopping and backing up (Wu et al., 2011). These maneuvers typically occur at very low speeds, when hybrids operate mostly on electric power.

In a study of insurance claims for 2005-17 hybrid models and their conventional twins, the Highway Loss Data Institute found that hybrids were as much as 10% more likely to be involved in pedestrian crashes with injuries than their non-hybrid equivalents (HLDI, 2018). Claims were assumed to stem from a pedestrian crash if they involved an injury liability claim without a claim for vehicle damage. 

New hybrid and electric vehicles are required to emit a motorlike sound while moving forward or in reverse at speeds up to 19 mph as of February 28, 2021 (Office of the Federal Register, 2020).